How to Solder Electronic Components

What is soldering and when should you use it?

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.
Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
The metal to be soldered is heated with a soldering iron and then solder is melted into the connection.

Only the solder melts, not the parts that are being soldered.
Solder is a metallic "glue" that holds the parts together and forms a connection that allows electrical current to flow.

You can use a solderless breadboard to make test circuits, but if you want your circuit to last for more than a few days, you will want to solder the components together.

Materials and Equipment

A soldering iron

A soldering iron is used to heat the connections to be soldered.
For electronic circuits, you should use a 25- to 40-watt (W) soldering iron.
Higher wattage soldering irons are not necessarily hotter; they are just able to heat larger components. A 40-W soldering iron makes joints faster than a 25-W soldering iron does.
A soldering iron can be purchased at hardware stores and at most large department stores.

Rosin core solder

Solder has a lower melting point than the metals that are being connected do. The solder melts when it is heated by the soldering iron, but the metals being joined will not melt.
The rosin core acts as a flux. It prevents oxidation of the metals that are being connected, and enhances the ability of the solder to "wet" the surfaces that are being joined.
Solder that is used to join copper pipes has an acid core, which is appropriate for pipes, but will corrode electronic connections. Use solder that has a rosin core.
For most electronics work, a solder with a diameter of 0.75 millimeters (mm) to 1.0 mm is best. Thicker solder might make soldering small joints difficult and also increases the chances of creating solder bridges between copper pads that are not meant to be connected.
An alloy of 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) is used for most electronics work, but lead-free solders are available as well.

Stand on which to hold the hot soldering iron

There are a variety of stands available. It is important to always keep the hot iron in its stand when not in use.

Sponge

The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron.

Figure 1. Soldering equipment and materials. The solder in this picture is coiled inside a plastic tube; it is pulled through the top as needed. The spring on the stand holds the hot soldering iron. The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron. Solder braid is used to remove solder; solder is "soaked up" into the braid when it is heated by the soldering iron. Thewire strippers can be adjusted to strip the plastic covering off of various thicknesses of wire. The prototype board is used to connect electronic components in a circuit.

Solder braid

This is used to remove solder.
To use the braid, place it over the solder to be removed and heat it from above with the iron. The solder will flow into the braid.
Solder braid is used to extract an electronic component that is soldered onto a board.
It is also used to reduce the amount of solder on a connection.

Prototype board

A prototype board is used to assemble the circuit. The board shown is from www.protostack.com, but www.radioshack.com also supplies prototype boards.
Prototype boards have copper tracks or pads for connecting components.

Steel wool or fine sandpaper

This is used to clean connections prior to soldering.
Solder will not flow over a dirty connection.

Crocodile clips

These can be used as heat sinks, if needed.

Disclaimer: Science Buddies occasionally provides information (such as part numbers, supplier names, and supplier weblinks) to assist our users in locating specialty items for individual projects. The information is provided solely as a convenience to our users. We do our best to make sure that part numbers and descriptions are accurate when first listed. However, since part numbers do change as items are obsoleted or improved, please send us an email if you run across any parts that are no longer available. We also do our best to make sure that any listed supplier provides prompt, courteous service. Science Buddies receives no consideration, financial or otherwise, from suppliers for these listings. (The sole exception is any Amazon.com or Barnes&Noble.com link.) If you have any comments (positive or negative) related to purchases you've made for science fair projects from recommendations on our site, please let us know. Write to us atscibuddy@sciencebuddies.org.

Safety Precautions

Caution: A soldering iron can heat to around 400°C, which can burn you or start a fire, so use it carefully.
Unplug the iron when it is not in use.
Keep the power cord away from spots where it can be tripped over.
Take great care to avoid touching the tip of the soldering iron on a power line. If a power cord is touched by a hot iron, there is a serious risk of burns and electric shock.
Always return the soldering iron to its stand when it is not in use.
Never put the soldering iron down on your work bench, even for a moment!
Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke that will form as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and can be quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping your head to the side of, not above, your work.
Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal. Wash your hands after using solder.

Tips

Reliable operation of a circuit with soldered connections depends on good soldering practices. Here are some tips for successful soldering.

Plan before you start to solder. Identify all the parts that you will be using.
It is helpful to attach each part to a piece of paper and write what it is and its value (for example, resistor #1: 100 ohms).
Some components, such as LED's, must be placed the correct way around in order to function.
The following is a suggested order for the installation of various components:

Integrated circuit (IC) holders (note the orientation). The IC will be added later.
Resistors
Capacitors, less than 1 micro farad
Large capacitors, 1 micro farad or greater, note the orientation.
Diodes, note the orientation.
LED's, note the orientation.
Transistors, note the orientation.
Solid wire connections between components on the board

Solid wire is fairly rigid, so it will stay in place once attached.

Stranded wire to parts that are connected by wire to the circuit

Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire.

Integrated circuits

Connect them the correct way around.
Many IC's are static sensitive.
Leave IC's in their antistatic packaging until you need them, then ground your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before touching the IC's.
Carefully insert IC's in their holders. Make sure all the pins are lined up with the socket, then push down firmly with your thumb.

Preparing the Soldering Iron: Tinning the Tip

Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug it in.
Wait for the soldering iron to heat up.
Moisten the sponge.
Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip.
Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.

This is called tinning and it will help the heat flow from the iron's tip to the joint.
The solder should flow onto the tip, producing a bright shiny surface.
If the solder will not flow onto the tip, clean it by wiping it on the wet sponge.
When tinned, wipe excess solder off on the wet sponge.
You do not need to tin the tip before every joint, but you should re-tin it if it has gone dull when the soldering iron has not been used for a few minutes.
Check the manufacturer's instructions related to tinning the tip.

The tip of the soldering iron should be a shiny silver color. If it is black and pitted, replace it with a new one.

Soldering

Solder needs a clean surface on which to adhere.

Buff the copper foil of a PC board with steel wool before soldering.
Remove any oil, paint, wax, etc. with a solvent, steel wool, or fine sandpaper.

To solder, heat the connection with the tip of the soldering iron for a few seconds, then apply the solder.

Heat the connection, not the solder.
Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.
Both parts that are being soldered have to be hot to form a good connection.

Figure 2. The tip of the soldering iron heats both the copper pad and the lead from the electronic component. Solder melts when placed in contact with the hot metals to be joined.

Keep the soldering tip on the connection as the solder is applied.

Solder will flow into and around well-heated connections.
Use just enough solder to form a strong connection.

Remove the tip from the connection as soon as the solder has flowed where you want it to be. Remove the solder, then the iron.
Don't move the connection while the solder is cooling.
Don't overheat the connection, as this might damage the electrical component you are soldering.

Transistors and some other components can be damaged by heat when soldering. A crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink to protect these components.

Figure 3. By absorbing heat, the crocodile clip will reduce the heat that flows to the component, helping to prevent damage.

Soldering a connection should take just a few seconds.

If it is taking longer, see the troubleshooting section below.

Inspect the joint closely. It should look shiny.

If you are soldering a wire (called the lead) onto a PC board (on thetrack), it should have a volcano shape. See Figure 3.
If the connection looks bad, reheat it and try again.

Figure 4. The solder in a good join will be shaped like a cone, with solid contact between the solder and all surfaces to be joined. Bad joins (also called dry joins) should be melted and remade.

Wipe the tip of the iron on a damp sponge to clean it. The tip should now be shiny.
Unplug the soldering iron when it is not in use.

Common Problems and Troubleshooting

Solder will not flow.

The parts to be joined may be dirty. Remove the solder and clean the parts.

The connection looks grainy or crystalline.

Parts were moved before the solder was allowed to cool.
Reheat to form a good joint. You may need a larger soldering iron to heat connections adequately.

The tip is oxidized.

Soldering is much easier with a shiny, clean tip.
Clean the tip with a damp synthetic sponge while the iron is hot.
To avoid oxidizing the tip, do not leave the iron plugged in when not in use.
Do not use the iron at a higher temperature than is necessary to melt solder.
Clean the tip of the iron on a damp synthetic sponge as soon as it starts to change from a silver color.

There is too much or too little solder.

Using too much solder can cause a solder bridge, which means that two adjacent joints are accidentally connected.
Using too little solder might result in poor electrical continuity between the board and component. The connection should be smooth, shiny, and rigid.

Laser printer and photocopier operation

Copiers and laser printers have a lot in common. The major difference is in how the image is formed on a photosensitive drum:

A copier uses a bright light and lens to focus an image of the original (actually, a strip at a time which is scanned in most modern low to medium performance copiers) onto the drum. Adjusting the lens-to-original and lens-to-drum distance is used to vary the reduction or magnification.
A laser printer uses a low power sharply focused laser beam to scan one line at a time on the drum. Modern laser printers use infra-red solid state laserdiodes similar to those used in CD players and optical disk drives while older ones used helium neon lasers. The digital image is generated from a bit map stored in the printer's memory and modulates the laser beam. Scanning is mechanical - a high speed motor spins a multifaceted deflection mirror to get the X-axis and the paper moves to get the Y axis.
LED printers use a large array of LEDs as the image source but are otherwise similar to laser printers.
Plain paper fax machines use similar techniques in their printing mechanism.

Beyond this, copiers and laser printers are nearly identical (at least in principle) except that copiers use a positive process (dark areas in the original result in marks on the paper) and laser printers commonly use a negative process (a spot of light results in a dark mark on the paper).
The most sophisticated machines are now actually scanner-laser printer combinations with buffer memory so that multiple copies can be made without rescanning the original, sorting and collating is more flexible, scaling and rotation can be done digitally, and other features not possible with simple copiers.
(Portions from: Copenhagen Cowboy (cowboy@fastlane.net).)
The photosensitive drum is the heart of the laser printer or copier. In larger machines, it may be a separately replaceable unit. In most laser printers and smaller copiers, it is part of the 'toner cartridge' and is a throw-away (or may be recycled).
The drum is coated with a photosensitive material which has an extremely high resistance when in darkness. It's resistance drops to a low value when illuminated.
All of the following takes place as a continuous process as the drum rotates. Note that the actual photosensitive drum in most copiers and laser printers has a circumference that is much smaller than the length of the printed page. Therefore, only a portion fits at any given time and the charging, exposure, transfer to the paper, cleaning, and erasing is a continuous process:

The drum's surface is charged to a high positive voltage (typically 5 to 6 kV) by a set of charging corona wires in close proximity to the drum.
The exposure process differs for copiers and laser printers:
- For copiers, a swath of the original is focused onto the drum. As the drum turns, a quartz lamp and strip mirror moves along the original and second strip turning mirror moves at half this speed. The result is that the entire original's image is kind of 'peeled' onto the rotating drum. (Look through the glass platform that supports the original of a copier as it is copying and you will see what I mean.)
- For laser printers, the negative image of the page stored in the printer's buffer memory (the laser is turned on where the print is to be black) is read out and scanned onto the drum one line (i.e., 1/300th or 1/600th of an inch) at a time.
Where the light hits the drum's surface, its resistance drops dramatically and the charge in these areas is dissipated.
At this point, a swath of the image of your ultimate copied or printed page resides as areas of electrostatic charge on the drum. This is a 'latent' image and must be 'developed'.
As the drum continues to turn, the latent image rotates past the 'developer unit' which contains a mixture of developer and toner. For the most part, developer is not really used up during the printing process but some is lost and may need to be replenished from time-to-time (depends on design).
- Developer is a material which includes powdered iron or other powder which is attracted by a magnet.
- Toner is the actual 'ink' and consists of very finely powdered thermo plastic particles. These are 'fixed' in the fuser by literally melting the image onto the paper.
Depending on design, the developer material may be separate or actually combined with the toner.
A magnet in the developer unit which is as long as the page is wide causes the developer along with trapped toner to stand out following its lines of force off of its long N-S pole pieces. This forms a kind of brush of toner and developer material which is in contact with the drum as it rotates with its latent image. Normally, the developer material brush is C-shaped, and toner particles are carried in the C-shape (the back of the 'C' is against the drum).
Here is where the developing processes of copiers and laser printers differ:
- For copiers, the relative charges of the drum and toner are set up so that toner is drawn to the unexposed (dark parts of the original) portions of the drum resulting in a positive image on the paper.
- For laser printers, the relative charges of the drum and toner are set up so that toner is drawn to the exposed (where the laser beam was turned on) portions of the drum resulting in a negative image on the paper.
The drum continues to rotate around and comes in contact with the paper. Below the paper is another corona, the 'transfer corona'. Another high voltage is applied to the back of the paper (once again, around 7 or 8 kV DC) to draw the toner from the drum to the paper. (Remember, all this is going on in a continual cycle and it is all in motion).
Depending on the manufacturer of the machine, you may or may not have a third corona, the 'separation corona'. This is needed to separate the paper from the drum, but not disturb the toner on the paper (the separation corona is usually 4 or 5 kV AC (if it was DC, you would separate the paper, but haveVERY smeared toner all over the page as to make it unreadable). The separation corona usually has guides over it to keep the paper from 'dipping' down too far into the corona shell.
Paper is then transported to the fuser which 'fixes' the toner to the paper via heat (to soften the toner particles) and pressure (to embed them in the paper fiber). There are parts in the fuser which also keep the paper from sticking to the hot rollers. A thermostatically controlled quartz tube lamp provides the heat inside the anti-stick (Teflon coated) fuser roller.
Finally, your copy or printed page is ready!
However, we are not done as there is still some toner on the drum - it is not possible to get it all off electrically) so there is usually a rubber or plastic blade which rubs in direct contact with the drum. This 'drum blade' scrapes the toner off the drum, and the 'recovery blade' catches it to keep it from falling back into the machine. A 'used toner auger' transports the used toner (which is now changed both physically and electrically and is also contaminated with paper dust (don't reuse your used toner) because it can eventually damage the developer unit, cleaning blades, fuser sections and other parts of the mechanism.
Now that all the toner has been scraped off the drum, there is still some residual charge on the drum from the previous exposure process. You can't scrape the static charge off the drum, so the cleaned drum is now fully exposed to a bright light to discharge the drum surface and prepare it again for a new charge, which comes right after the discharge lamps.

That is the basic process. Many variations are possible and depending upon the machine and manufacturer, some of this may be a little different. Where a (disposable) toner cartridge is used, many of these components are replaced with the cartridge - typically the drum, toner itself and developer (usually combined into a single powder), developer magnet (really neat!), cleaning blades, some of the corona wires.
There is also some photocopier information at:

Diverse Devices

Laser printer operation summary

(Portions from: Zaki (zg@ix.netcom.com).) In general the principle of electrostatic laser printing is as follows:

Charging a photoconductive selenium (or other) coated drum.
Discharging the drum with the laser steering engine in accordance with the input image rasterized pattern. (the laser is modulated to generate a predefined pixel pattern on the face of the drum - the focal plane).
The rotating drum attracts toner to the charged pattern (latent image) generated by the laser.
The toner is transfered from the drum to the moving papaer to generate a full image.
The paper carrying the toner moves through the heater to fuse the toner to a fine non-erasable image.

The laser steering engine is combined of the following components:

Infra-red diode laser, 3 to 4 mW in basic units, up to 30 mW or more for high performance printers.
Beam expander to form the required size of the collimated input beam which generates the beam spot size in the focal plan.
Cylindrical lens to reshape the laser elliptical beam to a round one.
Spinning polygonal mirror to deflect the laser over the focal plan.
F-Theta lens to flatten the inherent circular plan of a rotating mirror. This lens is a very special lens which only few in the optical community know how to design and fabricate. The one that you own is particularly special because it is a Sectioned F-Theta lens which are typicaly more expensive (most of them are spherical). If you need to scan or to print in high resolution 500 dpi or higher, you end up using a glass F-Theta lens.

Cleaning and Handling of Photosensitive Drums

Where the drum is located inside a replaceable toner cartridge, there is no need for special handling. However, where the drum is a separate unit, the following applies. Or, if for some reason, you need to disassemble (gasp!) a cartridge: (From: David Kuhajda (dkuhajda@locl.net).)
Whatever you do, do NOT use alcohol on an organically based drum, it will ruin it. The alcohol causes the material to crystalize. I use to do copier service and this was stressed a lot by the manufacture as they switched from the old selenium drums to the new opc drums. Direct sunlight will immediately destroy the drum. A couple of minutes under normal lighting is no problem, just place it in a dark area and put a black cloth over the top of the drum while it is out. If you are replacing the drum cleaning blade or cleaning the crud off the blade, make sure you powder up the drum completely and the blade before reapplying power. The toner actually is a slight lubricant and the rubber cleaning blade directly on the drum will also ruin it. Just print a few low text copies after reassembling to allow the blade to reseat properly.
(From: hapticz@email.msn.com.)
Short periods (less than 5 min) under fluorescent lighting is safe.
Direct sunlight kills them immediately.
Just have a clean brown paper bag to shove it into while it sits on the table outside the machine.
Often more damage is done to them physically during insertion/removal. just be careful.
Xerox used to clean the 10" diameter drums with 90% isopropyl alcohol and some kind of "Kim Wipes" in our office, that was years ago though.

Book on laser printer maintenance and rapair

(From: Michael (ncacaver@aol.com).) Get the book: "Easy Laser Printer Maintenance and Repair by Stephen J. Bigelow".
Your local library should have it or be able to get it. Stephen J. Bigelow has several other books on printer repair, both laser and non laser types. All are very good.

Discussion on laser diodes in laser printers

"I just acquired the optics from a dead laser printer and have been trying to understand it. There are two functions I have yet to grasp. One is something which it has but for which I see no need. There seems to be a heater (Contains mica) and a thermometer, with PCB markings like "T1" and H2" or something similar. If these the laser is temperature controlled, why? There seems to be a control photodetector to monitor the laser diode so temperature control appears like overkill unless the photodiode itself has too much temperature dependence and the drum exposure is very critical."

(From: Jonathan M. Elson (jmelson@artsci.wustl.edu).)
There is a heater inside the fuser roller. This is what melts the toner into the paper. It is thermostatically controlled, and then has a safety thermostat in case the control fails.
There are two photodetectors for the laser. One compensates for dimming of the laser over years of use, the other picks up the beam at a particular angle of the polygon mirror, and synchronizes the raster electronics to the polygon rotation.

"The other thing is something I cannot find, the aperture defining the nice well-formed pixel. So far I must admit the study has been a bit superficial but the aperture ought to be pretty obvious if there is one!"

The laser is the aperture. With an optical path of 0.5 m or so, the laser is a pretty good approximation of a true point source. A simple lens makes it look like a very good point source.

"Finally, how are the correction lens made? They look like slices out of the middle of some fair sized lenses, but that would be a very wasteful way to make them. Can they be diamond formed to nearly the final shape and with such good finish so only a simple polish completes them. Grinding the old-fashioned way on a sliver of glass looks doomed to generating all sorts of defective approximations to a sphere. (As far as I can tell they are glass, or some wonderfully hard plastic I would like to know more about!) Can they be molded to sufficient precision? (The sides are ground or sawn.) Thanks to anyone who can bring me up to date on lens fabrication technique."

I think they mold these lenses to near correct shape, then grind and polish to the desired aspheric shape with specialty machines for that purpose. (Note that almost all eyeglasses are aspheric for astigmatism correction.) Yes, these lenses are glass, I've had a few printers apart myself.

Types of toner

(From: Lionel Wagner (ck508@FreeNet.Carleton.CA).) There are two basic kinds of toner: magnetic and non-magnetic. If your laser printer has a Cannon 'engine' it most likely uses magnetic. NEVER use the wrong type. The imaging process is extremely delicate and specific toners are important. Use of toner that is slightly different could result in all black or all white copies.

So you put in the wrong type of toner?

"I have a 3M Model 6312 copier. I believe it is a re-badged Lanier. I didn't pay much for it but it worked well. When the toner warning light came on, I made the mistake of adding the wrong kind of toner. I removed the wrong toner as much as I could by vacuum. Is there anything I should do before adding the right type of toner? Did I do serious damage to the system? What to do if the warning light remained on even with the right type of toner added? Any suggestion will be greatly appreciated."

(From: Lionel Wagner (ck508@FreeNet.Carleton.CA).)
If your copier uses non-magnetic toner, it is mixed with iron powder, called the Developer. Both have to be removed and all residue vacuumed out. If the copier uses magnetic toner, less of it will remain in the machine. Try to get a

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RJ45 AND RJ11

RJ 45 VS RJ11

Registered Jack is the meaning of the acronym RJ which is the acronym that cable connectors usually start with. Two of the most common jacks are the RJ45 and RJ11, each with their own specific purpose. The main difference between these two is in where they are actually used. RJ45 jacks are used in networking, where you connect computers or other network elements to each other. RJ11 is the cable connector that is being used in telephone sets.

Aside from the application, there are also differences that an individual can easily see and identify. The first of which is in the number of cables that are accommodated in each connector. If you look closely at both connectors, you would see that there are only four wires inside and RJ11 while there are eight wires inside an RJ45. As a consequence of having to accommodate more wires, RJ45 connectors are also a little bit bigger than RJ11s. It is then quite easy to deduce that you cannot plug-in an RJ45 connector to a RJ11 slot but the opposite is possible.

Although you can plug an RJ11 connector into an RJ45 slot, you should avoid doing that because you might damage the device that has the RJ45 slot, whether it is a switch or a network adapter. This is true when you use an RJ11 connector that is connected to your phone line. The reason behind this is the power that is being delivered by the telephone company into your handset that allows it to function even during a power outage. But with proper knowledge and training, some people have been able to use RJ45s all over their house instead of RJ11s.

A lot of people have begun to place RJ45 jacks on wall outlets inside their houses in order to reduce the number of visible wiring when using VoIP handsets that are rapidly gaining popularity right now. These mobile phones need to connect to your network instead of your telephone line. Usually VoIP handsets are found beside routers or computers, but having an RJ45 outlet gives VoIP phones the same amount of freedom as standard telephone sets when it comes to positioning.

Summary:
1.RJ45 is used with ethernet cables in computer networking while RJ11 is used in connecting telephone units
2.RJ45 contains more wires than RJ11
3.RJ45 is physically bigger than RJ11 to accommodate the extra wires

HOW TO BROSWE FREE WITH YOUR DSTV, HITV, STARTIMES DECODER

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(NEW OR OLD MODELS)

Many years ago, i came across some thing in the internet, how to browse free with phones, some months back its stop. Last two years until now i have been on this free internet and its been working for me and others. The best free internet presently is theSatellite Internet, which DSTV, STAR-TIMES, HITV, MY TV, are providers.

SATELLITE INTERNET doesn’t affect signal or any damage to your Decoder, but add more values to it. Why pay some much for a bouquet and pay more on internet plans. When you can make use of this free internet with decoders.

The procedure are so simple and easy to follow:

Requirement:

A Decoder (dstv, hitv, e.t.c.) (see fig 1)
A Cable Modem
RJ 45 NIC Cable
SPLITTER
A Router
E16-12 Channel on your decoder…see more…….

Fig 1. Decoder

Fig 2. Cable Modem

Fig 3. RJ 45 NIC Cable

Cracking DSTV the easy way

For those who do not know already, there a few unencrypted channels on Eutelsat W4 and Eutelsat W7, both located at 36° East. DStv was formerly on W4 but is now beaming its signals from W7. The information I am sharing relates to how to view the unencrypted channels that share the same satellite as Multichoice’s DStv, and not how to illegally hack into DStv’s encrypted channels.

DStv decoders are designed, manufactured and sold to receive Multichoice services only. Therefore, I offer no guarantee that all the channels I am sharing would necessarily work on your DStv decoder. The DStv HD decoder for example, does not offer a “Public bouquet” and even for the single view decoders that do, one might be unable to watch the unencrypted channels once subscription is overdue. It would thus make the most sense to simply buy a good MPEG4-compatible digital satellite receiver and connect same to your satellite dish. There would be more on that later.

The free channels from China

The easiest unencrypted channels to watch are the following 3 TV channels from China Central Television (CCTV), the major state television broadcaster in mainland China:

CCTV News (formerly CCTV 9): this channel is targetted at an English-speaking international audience and mainly broadcasts news and current affairs programmes
CCTV-F: programming targetted at a French-speaking international audience
CCTV-4: an international channel broadcast in Chinese language

Any DStv decoders can view the CCTV channels whether your subscription is expired or not. So long your satellite is pointed towards 36° East.

If you are using a good Free-To-Air (FTA) digital satellite receiver, a blind scan should reveal the CCTV channels. Else, enter the following parameters to your receiver:

In South Africa – Frequency: 11637 Symbol rate: 22000 Polarization: Vertical FEC: 3/4
Rest of Africa – Frequency: 11940 Symbol rate: 27500 Polarization: Horizontal FEC: 3/4 and Frequency: 11862 Symbol rate: 27500 Polarization: Horizontal FEC: 3/4

The free channels from East Africa

In recent times, a few channels have emerged on Eutelsat W7 from Kenya, and beamed at the African continent:

NTV Kenya: a leading TV channel in Kenya offering news and general entertainment
KBC Channel 1: a TV service from the wholly-state owned Kenya Broadcasting Corporation
K24: a news and current affairs channel from Kenya
KTN Kenya: an all-round channel in Kenya. Arguably the leading TV station
NTV Uganda: a general entertainment channel targetted at Uganda

Parameters:

Frequency: 11731 Symbol rate: 8751 Polarization: Vertical FEC: 3/5
Frequency: 11716 Symbol rate: 3141 Polarization: Vertical FEC: 3/4

The free channels from Francophone West Africa

A bouquet of mostly French-speaking African channels exist on Eutelsat W4.

La Chaîne de Futur (LCF): a tv channel from Togo
Mboa TV: an entertainment TV channel based in France and exclusively dedicated to black-afro artists
RTS 1 (Senegal): Radiodiffusion Télévision Sénégalaise (RTS) is the Senegalese public broadcasting company
2STV: a TV channel in Senegal broadcasting mainly cultural programmes, interviews with local music and other artistic stars, and talkshows
Touba TV: a privately-owned TV channel in Senegal
ORTB TV: Office de Radiodiffusion et Télévision du Bénin (ORTB) is a the mainstream terrestrial television channel and radio operator in Benin
LoveWorld Plus: Christian-themed programming in English language from Nigeria

Parameters:

Frequency: 12437 Symbol rate: 23437 Polarization: Horizontal FEC: 3/4

Kindly note that the channels are subject to change without notice. Thus, re-scanning your receiver regularly ensures that you are constantly in the loop as to the current channels.

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Materials and Equipment

A soldering iron

A soldering iron is used to heat the connections to be soldered.
For electronic circuits, you should use a 25- to 40-watt (W) soldering iron.
Higher wattage soldering irons are not necessarily hotter; they are just able to heat larger components. A 40-W soldering iron makes joints faster than a 25-W soldering iron does.
A soldering iron can be purchased at hardware stores and at most large department stores.

Rosin core solder

Solder has a lower melting point than the metals that are being connected do. The solder melts when it is heated by the soldering iron, but the metals being joined will not melt.
The rosin core acts as a flux. It prevents oxidation of the metals that are being connected, and enhances the ability of the solder to "wet" the surfaces that are being joined.
Solder that is used to join copper pipes has an acid core, which is appropriate for pipes, but will corrode electronic connections. Use solder that has a rosin core.
For most electronics work, a solder with a diameter of 0.75 millimeters (mm) to 1.0 mm is best. Thicker solder might make soldering small joints difficult and also increases the chances of creating solder bridges between copper pads that are not meant to be connected.
An alloy of 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) is used for most electronics work, but lead-free solders are available as well.

Stand on which to hold the hot soldering iron

There are a variety of stands available. It is important to always keep the hot iron in its stand when not in use.

Sponge

The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron.

Solder braid

This is used to remove solder.
To use the braid, place it over the solder to be removed and heat it from above with the iron. The solder will flow into the braid.
Solder braid is used to extract an electronic component that is soldered onto a board.
It is also used to reduce the amount of solder on a connection.

Prototype board

A prototype board is used to assemble the circuit. The board shown is from www.protostack.com, but www.radioshack.com also supplies prototype boards.
Prototype boards have copper tracks or pads for connecting components.

Steel wool or fine sandpaper

This is used to clean connections prior to soldering.
Solder will not flow over a dirty connection.

Crocodile clips

These can be used as heat sinks, if needed.

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